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Aviation History
1953
1953 - 0286.PDF
284 FLIGHT, 6 March 1953 TRENDS IN AIR TRANSPORT . . . intermediate countries from whom it seeks local rights. Arrangements of this kind can be and are made (it was observed in last year's I.C.A.O. report that a large proportion of bilateral agreements filed in 1951 made "liberal provision for . . . the carriage of passengers, cargo and mail between points outside the territory of the State whose nationality the aircraft possesses"). It is particularly difficult for a compact country such as Holland, with little to offer in return, to obtain the traffic rights essential for economic long-haul services. Since these agreements are bilateral, they obviously circumvent the basic problem; the process of assuring a good flow of traffic on an international route involves elaborate negotiation, the number of agreements increasing in proportion to the number of frontiers crossed. Any airline timetable contains innumerable examples of the effects of traffic agreements. Typical cases are the B.O.A.C. Constellation and Stratocruiser services to New York, which can set down but not pick up passengers at Boston en route to New York, and the K.L.M. Constellation services from Amsterdam to Sydney, which have no intermediate traffic rights on the Geneva-Rome, Rome-Beirut, Beirut-Damascus and Karachi-Calcutta sections of the journey. The differing political structures of North America and Europe give the New World operators a considerable advantage over European competitors. Bilateral agreements between America and various European nations enable P.A.W.A. and T.W.A. to carry traffic to and from America and about 20 terminals in Europe; in some cases the agreements embody Fifth Freedom rights, and to some extent America's "flag carriers" are thus able to compete with European regional services. On the other hand, the European airlines' reciprocal operations are confined mainly to a few points on America's eastern seaboard, and domestic routes in the United States are preserved intact for American operators. Freedom 6, the term applied to internal operations in a foreign country, is normally referred to as "cabotage" (originally defined as trading along a coastline). The term could be applied to (quoting hypothetical cases) a foreign airline's service between London and Birmingham, and also to a non-British service between this country and a British sovereign possession. In practice, cabotage is the exception rather than the rule and does not greatly hamper the international approach to air transport. An exceptional situation is found in Germany, which lacks sovereignty, and must concede full rights to numerous airlines—both long-haul and local. A contrasting case is that of an undeveloped nation which cannot afford air transport and therefore welcomes the benefits which air cabotage can bring. Background to Failure.—Although the lack of a satisfactory multi lateral code represents a failure at international level to find a common means to the same end, disagreement is confined largely to the central problem of traffic rights, and marked progress has been made in secondary aspects of international co-operation in the development of air transport. Variation in national approaches to this problem, which have so far prevented agreement, can in turn be attributed to differences in local economic conditions throughout the growth of air traffic over the past 35 years. Last year an authoritative study of European airline operations observed that "international aviation was established in Europe, with a relatively dense network of passenger services, ten years earlier than in the United States, where the economic need for such services was nevertheless much greater. The reason was that the first European commercial operators, by playing on the national instincts of their governments and of domestic public opinion, experienced no trouble in obtaining the subsidies which were then, in those early days of aviation, an absolute necessity . . ," Another quotation, from Some International Aspects of Air Transport, goes further, stating that, in 1939, "no less than 55 airlines were com peting for the comparatively small amount of traffic generated in Europe. An average of 60 per cent of those revenues was derived from subsidy and not from traffic." Parallel progress in America was on a much more orderly and economic basis, because (a) a single authority controlled all the subsidies; (b) the number of directly competitive airlines was much smaller; and (c) the United States was (and is) better ground for any airline operator, by reason of good stage-lengths and suitably dispersed traffic-centres. Development of the U.S. airline industry was entrusted, in 1938, largely to the newly established Civil Aeronautics Board, charged with considering, inter alia, "the promotion of adequate, economical and efficient airlines. . . . Competition to the extent necessary to assure the sound development of an air-transportation system properly adapted to the needs of the foreign and domestic commerce of the United States. . . ." The Act setting up the C.A.B. authorized mail-payment sufficient to enable the development of certificated airlines "under honest, economical and efficient management." With this background in mind, it is easy to appreciate the clash of ideologies—as concentrated in the British and American approaches—at Chicago in 1944. Britain's recollections of the evils of over-competition at public expense made it impossible for her to accept the principle of full freedom. No complete solution is yet in sight; and nor are the international conditions necessary to implement the proposal for a unified world airline. International Standards.—A compelling post-war need envisaged at Chicago was the setting-up of machinery for international collaboration in the field of air transport. The result was the formation, in June 1945, of the Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization under the terms of the Convention on International Civil Aviation. Ten months later, P.I.C.A.O. lost its temporary prefix; and in April 1947, I.C.A.O. became a specialized agency of the United Nations. Presided over by an American, Dr. Edward Warner, I.C.A.O. exists to co-ordinate the civil-aviation policies of 58 member-nations. Undoubtedly the most far-reaching achievement of the organization has been the development of standards and recommended practices "in relation to aircraft, personnel, airways and auxiliary services in all matters in which such uniformity will facilitate and improve air navigation." These rules take the form of "Annexes" to the Convention ratified by member-nations. Adoption of the final Annex took place in 1951. The subjects covered are as follows: Personnel Licensing; Rules of the Air; j Meteorological Codes; Aeronautical Charts; Dimensional Units used in Ground-Air Communications; Operation of Aircraft; Scheduled Inter national Air Services; Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks; Airworthiness of Aircraft; Facilitation of International Air Transport; Aeronautical Telecommunications; Air Traffic Services; Search and Rescue; Aircraft Accident Inquiry; Aerodromes. Constant amendment of the rules framed under these headings is essential in the light of developments in each sphere. The work of standardizing is by no means complete; for example, no agreement has been reached on the airworthiness of turbine-powered aircraft. Britain has therefore had to compile her own regulations, based on I.C.A.O. philosophy. The vital need for universal agreement on matters of this type is demonstrated by America's refusal to accept the British standards as expressed in the grant of a certificate of airworthiness to the Comet. Another controversial question not yet settled is whether or not the use of kerosine should be mandatory in such aircraft. One of the most important of recent regulations to be evolved was that specifying the type of approach-lighting to be installed at airports to assist pilots landing in poor visibility. Use of the "cross-bar" system, as exemplified by the British Calvert and the American A.L.P.A. types, has now been recommended. Many authorities have delayed installation of approach lights pending I.C.A.O.'s decision, while, at London Airport, the Calvert lighting has been giving excellent results for several years. A problem as yet unsolved is the standardization of navigational aids, with British and American interests advocating completely different systems. Pending agreement, national authorities have either waited or made their own choice regardless of I.C.A.O. Cases of this sort seem to indicate a need for some streamlining of I.C.A.O. procedure tc enable vital matters to be dealt with at a speed which matches the growth of air traffic and of aviation knowledge. By separating the world into ten navigational regions, I.C.A.O. ensures that action is taken to discover and remedy defects peculiar to each region either in ground or air facilities. Communications, meteorology and traffic control demand especially close study today, in view of increased speeds, operating altitudes and frequency of service. Countries such as Iceland, which is importantly situated in relation to a major international route, cannot be expected to bear the expense or responsibility of maintaining navigational aids used by several other nations. The I.C.A.O. programme therefore makes provision for joint financing of services in these areas. The weather, radar and radio services in Iceland and Greenland, costing £500,000 annually, are paid for by eleven countries; over a dozen nations contribute directly or indirectly to operating the ten weather ships (a still more costly service) which stand guard in the Atlantic—plotting the weather, exchanging observations with aircraft and providing navigators with radar fixes and beacon transmissions. I.C.A.O. is also responsible for spending a small percentage of the U.N. appropriation for economic and social aid. Last year the allowance was $857,000, and the estimate for 1953 is $1,500,000. The money is spent in the form of technical assistance to under-developed countries wishing to develop civil aviation but lacking the experience or capital to do so. About 400 students have been trained in 27 countries, and over 100 instructors are giving training "in the field"; several foreign students have also been awarded fellowships to study abroad, notably in the United Kingdom and America. Most of the training so far has been in such occupations as communications, traffic-control, meteorology, airport management, aircraft and engine maintenance and aircraft inspection. Russia and Communist China have never joined I.C.A.O.; neverthe less, member-nations are estimated to carry 90 per cent of the world's scheduled air traffic. On the basis of ton-miles performed in 1951, the ten foremost countries were: the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Brazil, France, Australia, Netherlands, Canada, Mexico, Colombia and India. Government Subsidies.—Although financial self-sufficiency is the goal of every major airline, only four of the large American domestic carriers (T.W.A., American, Eastern and United) have become—quite recently—independent of subsidy through air-mail payments. Since most national airlines elsewhere receive direct or hidden subsidies, it is evident that the air-transport industry, as a whole, is still dependent on public support. An indication of the degree to which American airline operations were subsidized in 1951 is contained in Dr. Jerome Hunsaker's book Aeronautics at the Mid-century; domestic trunk-lines' earnings for the year included 6 per cent mail revenue, and the corresponding proportion of the overseas operators' revenue was 22 per cent. Total mail payments to both classes of operator amounted to $99 million, against the Post Office's air-mail revenue of $74 million. American airlines are paid air-mail rates which vary according to the C.A.B.'s evaluation of economic data supplied by the company. The Board makes a retroactive payment calculated to give the carrier an overall profit, having taken into account the actual cost of carrying the mail and the efficiency of the carrier. In the case of the non-subsidized airlines mentioned earlier, the rate paid is thought to be equal to the cost of carriage. One advantage of the mail-pay system of subsidy is that the cost of developing air transport is at least partly borne, through the Post Office, by members of the public who receive some direct return for their money. Government provision of airports and other fixed aeronautical services can also represent a form of subsidy, since their cost is normally in excess of revenue from landing fees and similar charges. The imposition of the 5s passenger tax at British airports last year illustrates the principle of recouping part of the cost of airports from those who make use of them. It can be effectively argued that airlines should not be regarded as the only factions to benefit from the existence of ground services, since airports are part of national defence and an asset to the taxpayer, both as a passenger and as a user of the air-mail service. The airlines them-
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